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DEFORESTATION IN AWKA METROPOLIS: VIOLATING AFRICAN ECO-

THEOLOGY AND HUMAN WELLBEING 

 

KENECHI NNAEMEKA AFUNUGO 

Department of Religion and Human Relations, 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. 

nk.afunugo@unizik.edu.ng 
& 

CHUKWUKAMMA, KINGSLEY .E. 

ke.chukwukamma@unizik.edu.ng 

Department of Religion and Human Relations, 

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. 

  

ABSTRACT 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis, Anambra State, Nigeria, presents a critical challenge; 

undermining African eco-theology and human wellbeing. This study investigates the 

environmental and socio-spiritual consequences of forest depletion, addressing the gap in 

knowledge on its intersection with indigenous ecological ethics. Using a qualitative 

methodology, data were gathered through personal communication and analysis of extant 

literature, including digital news sources. The research is anchored in the Gaia Theory in Igbo 

Perspective, which emphasizes communal harmony with nature. Data were analyzed through 

phenomenological and hermeneutical approaches, revealing deforestation’s role in sickness, 

death, soil biodiversity loss, erosion, and aesthetic degradation. The findings highlight the 

urgent need for regulation implementation, reforestation programs, and public ecological 

awareness rooted in African eco-theology. The study concludes that preserving forests is 

essential for sustaining ecological balance, cultural heritage, and human well-being in Awka 

Metropolis. 

Keywords: Deforestation, Awka Metropolis, African Eco-Theology, Human Wellbeing. 

 

INTRODUCTION 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis of Anambra State, Nigeria, can yield certain economic and 

developmental advantages, but its execution must be approached with deliberate ecological 

responsibility and adherence to environmental preservation standards. Ogbodo et al (2023) and 

Umeukeje et al (2024), elucidate that the unchecked clearing of forested areas in and around 

Awka Metropolis compromises critical biodiversity, disrupts local ecosystems, and accelerates 

land degradation. All these contribute to long-term environmental instability. Therefore, any 

deforestation activity within this region should be guided by scientifically informed policies 

that prioritize ecological balance and sustainable land use. Such an approach ensures that 

immediate human interests do not undermine the enduring health of the environment, 

reinforcing the imperative that deforestation, though occasionally justifiable, must never be 

conducted arbitrarily. 

Sequel to the aforementioned articulations, DGB Group (2021) accentuates that deforestation 

in Nigeria represents a critical environmental crisis driven primarily by agricultural expansion, 

logging (both legal and illegal), and rapid urbanization, exacerbated by weak governance and 

mailto:nk.afunugo@unizik.edu.ng
mailto:ke.chukwukamma@unizik.edu.ng


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high population growth. The Group stress that with an alarming annual forest loss rate of 3.7%, 

the highest globally according to the United Nations, the consequences are severe, including 

biodiversity loss, climate alteration, soil erosion, and increased vulnerability to natural 

disasters. These environmental degradations also jeopardize local livelihoods through reduced 

access to clean water and arable land. DGB Group advocate for large-scale, nature-based 

restoration projects to combat deforestation and restore ecological balance in Nigerian 

communities. 

Proshare (2022), Alkassim (2024) and Uwaegbulam (2025) enunciate that deforestation in 

Nigeria is a growing concern. According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural 

Organization (cited by Proshare), Africa loses nearly four million hectares of forest annually, 

with Nigeria experiencing significant deforestation. In 2010, Nigeria's natural forests spanned 

10.9 million hectares, covering 12% of its land area. However, by 2021, the country had lost 

96.5 thousand hectares, contributing to 58.5 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Notably, Nigeria 

had the highest deforestation rate globally in 2005 at 3.5%, with more than 55.7% of its forests 

already depleted due to logging, subsistence farming, and fuel-wood collection. From 2000 to 

2005, the country lost 81% of its old-growth forests, largely driven by the population's 

dependence on wood for heating and cooking. Additionally, between 2002 and 2020, the 

Akure-Ofosu Forest Reserve saw a staggering 44% reduction in its primary trees, highlighting 

a critical environmental challenge that threatens food security. The documentations of Proshare 

exposit that these losses are mainly attributed to poverty and unemployment, which drive 

people to the forests in search of shelter and livelihood opportunities. The consequences of this 

rapid deforestation include increased carbon emissions, leading to climate-induced crises such 

as droughts and irregular rainfall. 

While Nigeria has initiated tree-planting projects through its sub-national governments, these 

efforts have not been widely successful. The loss of forest cover in Nigeria is contributing to a 

rise in climate-related health issues, including respiratory problems, cardiovascular diseases, 

and heat stress, which are exacerbated by exposure to pollutants from deforestation and 

industrial emissions. Proshare (2022) proclaims that Nigeria has implemented several 

initiatives to reduce deforestation and its illegalities. The federal government, through the 

Forest Research Institute of Nigeria, has successfully reforested 6,191,363 hectares of land as 

part of the Green Bond Project, while distributing 6,550,056 seedlings to various state 

governments and institutions. Additionally, the Nigerian Erosion and Watershed Management 

Project, funded by the World Bank, have reclaimed 23,829 hectares of degraded land, 

benefiting 25,491 households. In the energy sector, Nigeria's Energy Transition Plan, 

announced in 2022, aims to reduce deforestation by promoting the use of cleaner cooking 

alternatives such as natural gas and green charcoal. This plan is designed to decrease CO2 

emissions and reduce reliance on wood for fuel. Despite these efforts, Nigeria still faces 

challenges in raising public awareness about the environmental and health impacts of 

deforestation, which remains a critical concern in addressing climate change. 

Raji (2022) insists that the challenges facing policies against deforestation in Nigeria stem 

largely from structural inefficiences, data inadequacies, and regulatory lapses. The Federal 

Ministry of Environment (cited by Raji) acknowledges that the nation's declining forest 

resources are aggravated by poor bureaucratic capacity to implement sustainable forest 

management policies. This is equally compounded by the widespread absence of 

comprehensive forest resource data across most states, which is an essential tool for 

constructing effective forest management plans. Furthermore, the Ministry highlights the 

government’s persistent struggle with weak enforcement mechanisms and the lack of 



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supportive policy infrastructure to address deforestation’s root causes. Raji maintains that 

although Nigeria’s engagement with the UN-REDD Programme and its implementation of the 

Community Based REDD+ (CBR+) initiative in Cross River State mark notable efforts to 

reverse forest loss and promote community-led conservation, criticisms still abounds. 

Amidst the prevailing ecological crisis in Nigeria, particularly in Awka Metropolis of Anambra 

State, this study interrogates the environmental and socio-spiritual ramifications of forest 

depletion, addressing a critical gap in discourse on its intersection with African Eco-Theology 

and human wellbeing. Employing a qualitative methodology, data were sourced through in-

depth interviews and a rigorous analysis of extant literature, including digital reportage. The 

research is grounded in the Gaia Theory, approached from an Igbo cosmological perspective, 

which emphasizes symbiotic coexistence between humanity and nature. Analytical procedures 

drawn from phenomenological and hermeneutical paradigms reveal deforestation as a catalyst 

for illness, mortality, soil biodiversity loss, erosion, and the desecration of natural aesthetics. 

Accordingly, this work reflects human well-being through the lens of man’s harmonious 

relationship with his environment, emphasizing that quality of life, peace, good health, 

inspiration, meaningful human relations, and aesthetic beauty are deeply ingrained in this 

balance. The study reveals that when man cares for the environment, respecting its order and 

preserving its integrity, the environment reciprocates by sustaining him with life-enhancing 

conditions. Thus, well-being is portrayed not merely as a personal or social state but as a 

holistic outcome of mutual care between man and his environment. 

THEORETICAL UNDERPINNING 

This study adopts the Gaia Theory from an Igbo perspective to reinforce its arguments. The 

Gaia Theory, as articulated by Boston (2008), posits that Earth functions as a planet-scale, self-

regulating super-organism composed of both its abiotic components and ecological systems. 

Conceived by J. E. Lovelock and further developed with L. Margulis in the late 1960s and early 

1970s, the theory suggests that biological and ecological processes actively regulate Earth’s 

physical parameters, such as temperature and atmospheric composition, within ranges that 

sustain life. Despite persistent controversy surrounding its perceived teleological implications 

and challenges regarding scientific testability, Gaia Theory has garnered recognition for 

offering a novel perspective on the dynamics of complex systems. Efforts to address criticisms 

include the development of the Daisyworld model, which demonstrates the plausibility of 

Gaian regulation without invoking purposeful design. Boston delineates that ongoing studies 

into biogeochemical cycles and systemic complexity may help determine the extent to which 

Gaian principles manifest in Earth’s natural systems. 

Lovelock (2009) exposes that the Gaia Theory posits that the Earth operates as a synergistic, 

self-regulating macro-system in which biotic and abiotic components intricately interact to 

sustain a dynamic equilibrium conducive to life. It asserts that the biosphere, atmosphere, 

hydrosphere, and lithosphere are inextricably linked, forming an autonomous regulatory 

network that modulates critical planetary parameters, such as atmospheric composition, ocean 

salinity, and surface temperature, through cybernetic feedback mechanisms propelled by the 

metabolic activities of life forms, particularly microorganisms. Lovelock enunciates that the 

theory emphasizes the emergent capacity of this planetary system, termed Gaia, to perpetuate 

homeostasis by mitigating destabilizing perturbations and recalibrating environmental 

variables toward conditions favorable for contemporary biological viability. It also suggests 

that Earth’s persistent thermodynamic disequilibrium, perpetuated by solar influx, undergirds 

its complex regulatory processes. Lovelock accentuates that beyond scientific domains like 



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geophysiology and biogeochemistry, Gaia’s conceptual architecture has incited philosophical 

and sociocultural interpretations regarding humanity’s entwinement with planetary 

stewardship and ecological ethics. 

Nweke and Nwoye (2016) argue that the Igbo concept of nature, environment, and Ala reflects 

a deep-seated understanding of the universe as a sacred and interconnected reality, where 

human beings, animals, plants, and inanimate elements form a harmonious whole. Nature is 

not seen as separate or subordinate to humanity but as a living domain infused with spiritual 

significance, demanding respect, care, and preservation. The Igbo worldview upholds a sacred 

ecology rooted in the philosophy of Egbe bere Ugo bere (live and let live), stipulating the need 

for balance, justice, and the dignity of all life forms. Nweke and Nwoye register that this 

orientation opposes exploitative tendencies and calls for a relational ethics that recognizes 

Mother Earth as both spiritual and communal, where the well-being of the environment is tied 

to the moral fabric of society. In the Igbo cosmology, respect for Ala is thus central to sustaining 

order, as any violation is seen not only as an ecological disruption but also as a moral and 

spiritual transgression that threatens the unity of the cosmos. 

Ossai (2024) maintains that the Igbo people possess a profound spiritual and cultural 

attachment to nature, viewing the environment not merely as a physical resource but as a sacred 

domain interconnected with human existence. The Igbo cosmology is deeply rooted in the 

belief that natural elements such as forests, water bodies, animals, and trees harbor spiritual 

entities whose presence necessitates reverence and ritual. Ossai insists that traditional 

ceremonies, taboos, and sacred sites have historically established a system of environmental 

ethics that promotes ecological balance and biodiversity conservation. He argues that these 

practices, embedded in everyday life, serve as mechanisms for environmental stewardship, 

regulating resource use and discouraging exploitation through fear of spiritual consequences. 

As indicated by Ossai, the preservation of sacred groves, veneration of aquatic and terrestrial 

spirits, and integration of ecological awareness into rituals such as the New Yam Festival 

reflect the Igbo people’s sustainable coexistence with their surroundings. This cultural 

orientation presents a worldview where environmental degradation is not only a physical loss 

but a spiritual disruption, sustaining a communal sense of accountability in protecting the 

natural world for future generations. 

The phenomenon of deforestation in Awka Metropolis raises serious concerns when examined 

through the lens of African eco-theology, particularly within the Igbo worldview that venerates 

Ala, the earth goddess. According to V. Nwafor, E. Onuike and K. Nduka (personal 

communication, April 18, 2025), in Igbo cosmology, Ala is not only the physical land but also 

a spiritual entity that governs morality, fertility, and communal well-being. They aver that 

cutting down trees and degrading natural habitats without regard for sacred ecological balance 

constitutes a violation of this reverence. African eco-theology frames the environment as a 

divine gift entrusted to human beings for stewardship, not exploitation. The unchecked 

deforestation in Awka represents a breach of this sacred trust, leading to disruptions not only 

in the ecosystem but also in the spiritual and moral fabric of society. 

The Gaia Theory, which conceptualizes the Earth as a self-regulating, living organism, aligns 

seamlessly with Igbo beliefs about the interconnectedness between humanity and Ala. From an 

Igbo perspective, the earth is not inert matter but a sentient and reactive presence. Hence O. 

Nwankwo, C. Anunobi and N. Eze (personal communication, April 18, 2025), assert that when 

humanity lives in harmony with the earth, Ala ensures fertility, peace, and balance. When this 

harmony is broken, nature reacts through disease, climate irregularities, and social disharmony. 

Gaia Theory strengthens the Igbo belief that environmental desecration does not merely result 



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in physical degradation but invites consequences that affect the entire human condition. Thus, 

the theory lends scientific credibility to indigenous ecological wisdom, encouraging modern 

society to revisit and respect traditional environmental ethics. 

Human well-being, in this context, is not an isolated or individualistic ideal but a collective and 

ecological state. In the Igbo worldview, peace (udo), health (ahụ ike), beauty (ima mma), and 

kinship or meaningful relationships (ụmụnna or igwebuike) are all seen as fruits of a well-kept 

relationship with Ala. The Gaia Theory supports this by showing that a balanced environment 

contributes to psychological stability, physical health, and even social cohesion. When forests 

are preserved and nature is allowed to flourish, the air is cleaner, temperatures are regulated, 

and biodiversity is maintained, all of which support a richer quality of life. Therefore, 

deforestation is not just an environmental concern but a direct assault on the well-being of the 

people of Awka. 

Furthermore, traditional Igbo practices such as sacred groves, taboos against cutting certain 

trees, and community festivals celebrating the earth demonstrate an implicit understanding of 

Gaia-like principles. These practices were not arbitrary but rooted in a deep awareness of 

environmental reciprocity. As urbanization and modernization threaten these practices, the 

Gaia Theory offers a bridge between ancient wisdom and contemporary science, calling for a 

reintegration of these values into environmental policy and urban planning. Reviving such 

practices can help reposition the people of Awka to once again live in harmony with Ala, thus 

restoring the mutual exchange of care between man and environment. 

Addressing deforestation through the Igbo perspective of Ala and the Gaia Theory emphasizes 

that ecological integrity and human flourishing are inseparable. It challenges contemporary 

society to redefine development not as endless expansion and resource consumption but as 

respectful coexistence with nature. When man honors the land, the land sustains man. This 

reciprocal dynamic ensures that well-being is not superficial or temporary, but deep-rooted and 

enduring. Therefore, eco-theology and Gaia Theory together serve as urgent calls to recognize 

the spiritual, moral, and physical consequences of environmental abuse, and to return to a 

worldview that sees the earth not as property, but as partner. 

DEFORESTATION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS 

Stanley (2025) defines Deforestation as the deliberate clearing of forested land. He exposits 

that it is historically triggered by the demand for agricultural expansion, animal grazing, and 

the procurement of wood for various human needs. This anthropogenic activity has drastically 

transformed global landscapes, reducing forest cover in regions such as Western Europe, North 

America, and China. Stanley asserts that in contemporary times, deforestation is most prevalent 

in tropical rainforests, where infrastructural development and slash-and-burn agriculture 

exacerbate forest degradation. The principal dangers associated with deforestation, as outlined 

by Stanley, include increased atmospheric carbon dioxide due to the release of sequestered 

carbon during tree burning, thereby intensifying global warming. Moreover, deforestation 

precipitates a significant loss of biodiversity, particularly in tropical ecosystems that host vast 

arrays of flora and fauna, potentially contributing to an ongoing mass-extinction event. 

Additionally, the removal of forest cover accelerates soil erosion and alters forest 

microclimates, heightening vulnerability to fire and ecological instability. Stanley indicates 

that although some regions, notably in North America, have seen forest recovery through 

conservation efforts, the long-term environmental risks of deforestation remain profound and 

multifaceted. 



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Pimm (2025) elucidates that deforestation refers to the large-scale removal of forests. He 

stresses that it carries profound environmental, ecological, and climatic consequences on both 

global and local scales. Globally, forests play a crucial role in sequestering carbon dioxide, a 

key greenhouse gas, through the storage of biomass. Their removal, according to Pimm, not 

only halts this carbon absorption but also releases stored carbon back into the atmosphere, 

intensifying climate change. He stresses that ecologically, tropical forests, particularly those 

like the Amazon, are biodiversity hotspots, home to an estimated two-thirds of Earth's species, 

and their destruction contributes significantly to species extinction. Pimm enunciates that on a 

local level, deforestation through selective logging and burning exacerbates forest 

flammability, promotes drought vulnerability, and increases the incidence of destructive 

wildfires, while also diminishing air quality, notably in regions like Southeast Asia. 

Furthermore, deforestation on steep tropical hillsides can lead to catastrophic landslides due to 

the absence of root systems that stabilize soil. While abandoned lands sometimes experience 

forest re-growth, fragmentation often impedes ecological recovery, disrupts genetic continuity 

among species, and precludes the return of many native organisms, especially where 

monoculture plantations replace original ecosystems, undermining biodiversity and failing to 

restore ecological balance. 

Bodo and Gimah (2021) and Anderson (2025) illuminate that deforestation has permanently 

transformed wooded regions worldwide. They argue that it is propelled primarily by human 

activities. Among these, agricultural expansion, timber extraction, urban development, mineral 

exploitation, and socio-economic demands stand as the leading causes. Tropical rainforests, 

especially the Amazon, currently face the most acute levels of degradation, while historical 

patterns reveal extensive forest loss in regions like Western Europe and Eastern North America, 

as noted by Anderson. Over two millennia, Europe’s tree cover dwindled from 80% to 34%, 

and North America lost nearly half its forests before the twentieth century. Bodo and Gimah 

expound that in contemporary times, approximately 15 billion trees are felled annually, over 

41 million each day, with around 10 million hectares of forest disappearing every year, an area 

equivalent to Iceland’s landmass.   

Anderson (2025) further accentuate that the ecological consequences of deforestation are 

profound: Enunciating that deforestation undermines critical environmental functions, 

exacerbating climate disruption through increased carbon emissions and reduced sequestration. 

It disrupts hydrological cycles, degrades soil integrity, and fragments habitats, threatening 

biodiversity and endangering countless species. Indigenous communities, whose cultures and 

livelihoods are inextricably linked to forest ecosystems, also face severe repercussions.  

HUMAN WELLBEING (HWB) AND ITS LINK TO A HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT 

Costanza and Fisher et al. (2007) expand the understanding of human wellbeing (HWB) by 

integrating perspectives from psychology, medicine, sociology, economics, and environmental 

science. They argue that HWB is not solely determined by material wealth but also by the 

degree to which human needs are met through both internal capacities and external 

opportunities. Their approach includes both objective elements, such as access to education 

and health services, and subjective dimensions, including emotional fulfillment and sense of 

purpose. Costanza et al. (2007) also assert that a person's relationship with their environment, 

natural and built, is vital to HWB, as ecological health directly supports human health and 

productivity. The environment provides essential services such as clean air, water, and fertile 

land, which are foundational for sustaining life and promoting social stability. When these 

environmental systems are degraded, as in the case of large-scale deforestation, the negative 

impacts ripple across generations, affecting nutrition, public health, and economic viability. 



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Therefore, HWB cannot be achieved or maintained without a conscientious commitment to 

environmental conservation and intergenerational equity. 

Human well-being (HWB), as described by McGillivray and Clarke (2008), defies precise 

definition due to its inherently subjective and multidimensional nature. They argue that 

although it can be described through various terms such as quality of life, welfare, living 

standards, utility, and happiness, HWB cannot be directly observed or independently measured. 

These diverse interpretations often overlap yet diverge in scope, reflecting the complexity of 

human experience. McGillivray and Clarke (2008) emphasize that HWB encompasses material 

needs, emotional and physical health, social relationships, and subjective life satisfaction. It is 

deeply tied to how people perceive their lives in the context of family, work, recreation, 

personal safety, and community. They also stress the significance of needs fulfillment and 

empowerment, which relate to an individual’s ability to make meaningful choices. Importantly, 

the fulfillment of these needs must occur in a sustainable environment, as exploiting natural 

resources such as forests jeopardizes not only ecological balance but also the future realization 

of HWB. Activities like deforestation, influenced by short-term material gain, disrupt 

ecosystems and diminish the long-term well-being of human populations by threatening 

biodiversity, water quality, and climate stability. 

Stiglitz and Sen et al. (2009) further critique the reduction of HWB to mere income or 

consumption levels. They argue that while income facilitates access to goods and services, it 

fails to capture the full picture of human flourishing. Many determinants of HWB, such as 

emotional well-being, social connectedness, safety, and autonomy, are non-material and 

context-dependent. Furthermore, income-based assessments often ignore how resources are 

distributed within societies, which can mask inequalities that significantly impact well-being. 

The authors highlight that individuals may derive different levels of satisfaction and health 

outcomes from the same level of income, depending on their values, needs, and environments. 

Additionally, the prioritization of economic growth at the expense of environmental integrity 

is short-sighted, as it depletes natural resources essential to long-term HWB. Sustainable well-

being, therefore, demands that economic and social development be pursued in harmony with 

environmental stewardship. Protecting forests and ecosystems not only preserves biodiversity 

but also safeguards the ecological services upon which human lives depend, making 

environmental responsibility an indispensable component of meaningful and enduring human 

well-being. 

DATA-DRIVEN INVESTIGATIONS  

Deforestation poses a critical environmental challenge in Nigeria, with Awka Metropolis of 

Anambra State exhibiting acute manifestations of this crisis. Observable indices include 

widespread loss of forest cover, increased soil erosion, declining soil fertility, disruption of 

local climate patterns, and a surge in respiratory and waterborne illnesses linked to degraded 

ecosystems. The destruction of sacred groves and natural shrines also reflects a profound socio-

spiritual dislocation, signaling not only ecological imbalance but also a rupture in indigenous 

cosmological relationships between humans and nature. 

Agada et al (2014) conducted a decade-long (2001–2010) analysis of land use in Awka 

Metropolis, revealing a significant inverse relationship between urban expansion and forest 

cover, as demonstrated by regression and correlation analyses. Their findings show that rapid 

housing development has substantially contributed to the displacement of urban forests, with 



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satellite imagery confirming spatial disparities in tree distribution across the city. This trend of 

deforestation captures the environmental cost of unchecked urbanization.  

Anambra State Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP) (2020) 

registers that the Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP), initiated 

by the Federal Government of Nigeria and funded by the World Bank, is addressing severe 

erosion problems in Awka Metropolis, particularly in areas such as the Federal High Court, 

Umuzocha, and Nodu in Okpuno, all within Awka South Local Government Area of Anambra 

State. NEWMAP enlighten that these communities face increasing threats from storm-water-

induced gullies, which are directly linked to deforestation. The removal of vegetation in these 

areas has left the soil exposed and vulnerable, allowing storm-water to create and widen erosion 

gullies that damage infrastructure and endanger lives. NEWMAP’s intervention aims to control 

these gullies and restore degraded land, thereby tackling a key consequence of deforestation in 

Awka. 

Owing to the high rate of deforestation in Awka Metropolis and other areas in Anambra State, 

Nature News (2022) reports that the Anambra State government has heightened its stance 

against environmentally harmful practices such as indiscriminate tree felling without 

replanting, bush burning, and unregulated land use. Through the Commissioner for 

Environment, Mr. Felix Odimegwu (cited by Nature News); the state reiterates that such 

actions are now classified as serious offences, necessitating collective civic responsibility to 

uphold environmental integrity. In alignment with Governor Charles Soludo's vision of 

transforming Anambra into a smart and sustainable state, the administration has launched 

comprehensive programmes, including tree-planting initiatives, public awareness campaigns, 

and inter-agency collaborations, to combat environmental degradation, as recorded by Nature 

News. Additionally, the state partners with agencies like NEWMAP and NESREA to promote 

sustainable practices, enforce environmental regulations, and disseminate community-level 

manuals on erosion control and climate adaptation. Irrespective of the preceding report on the 

efforts by the Anambra State Government, arbitrary deforestation, particularly in Awka 

Metropolis, is still ongoing with impunity and has not decreased. 

Ogbodo et al (2023) assessed the impact of deforestation in Anambra State, where Awka 

Metropolis is located, using open-source remote sensing data from the Global Forest Watch 

(GFW) platform. Analysis of tree cover change between 2000 and 2010 showed that 6.76 

thousand hectares (kha) of trees were gained, representing 1.5% of the state’s total land area of 

47.0 kha. During the same period, 1.52 kha of tree cover were lost due to deforestation. Their 

study also quantified the associated carbon emissions, revealing that Awka South Local 

Government Area (LGA) produced the highest emissions with 19,740 tons of CO₂ equivalent 

(CO₂eq), followed by Nnewi South (13,400 tons), Onitsha North (12,100 tons), Nnewi North 

(6,440 tons), Awka North (1,890 tons), and Onitsha South (1,480 tons), which recorded the 

lowest emissions. These results showcase the usefulness of the GFW platform in monitoring 

deforestation and related emissions.  

Onyeizugbe et al. (2023) critically examine the multifaceted issue of deforestation in Anambra 

State, which has Awka town as its capital, using the Akpaka Forest Reserve as a case study to 

investigate its causes, consequences, and regulatory impacts. Their study identifies fragile 

administration, corruption, ignorance, insecurity, population growth, urban expansion, and 

unsustainable consumption as the principal perpetrators of forest reserve loss. The 

environmental repercussions include erosion, flooding, altered microclimates, stream siltation, 

and biodiversity loss. Their research also reveals that the 2006 Forest Policy Act remains 

unimplemented at both the state and local levels, existing merely as a legislative artifact. 



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Onyeizugbe et al. affirm that reserve degradation is conceptualized in three analytical phases: 

Input (anthropogenic drivers), throughput (deforestation process), and output (ecological 

impacts). This accentuates the urgent need for systemic intervention. 

Anarah et al. (2024) study investigated deforestation in Awka South and identified it as a 

significant environmental issue. Data from 90 households revealed that 64.44% of respondents 

were female, with a mean age of 40.44 years. Most respondents (82.22%) were farmers, and 

36.67% had only primary education. They portray that the main causes of deforestation are 

wood cutting for cooking (80%), followed by urbanization (27%) and population increase 

(15%). Reported effects included desertification (mean = 2.57), erosion (2.37), and rising 

surface temperatures (2.35). Awareness was relatively high, with 68.88% recognizing 

desertification as a major threat.  

Global Forest Watch Anambra State, Nigeria (2025) records that between 2001 and 2023; 

Awka North experienced notable changes in its forest landscape. As of 2020, natural forests 

covered approximately 7.59 thousand hectares (kha), accounting for 20% of the region’s land 

area. However, in 2023 alone, the area lost 39 hectares (ha) of natural forest, corresponding to 

an estimated 33.9 kilotonnes of CO₂ emissions. From 2001 to 2023, the region witnessed a 

cumulative loss of 95 ha of tree cover—a 2.9% decrease from the 2000 baseline—releasing 

67.2 kilotonnes of CO₂ equivalent. Humid primary forest loss during the same period was 

minimal (<1 ha), representing only 0.48% of total tree cover loss and a 0.23% reduction in the 

area of humid primary forest. Net change analyses from 2000 to 2020 indicate a loss of 718 ha 

and a gain of 434 ha in tree cover, resulting in a net decline of 285 ha. In 2000, tree cover with 

canopy density exceeding 30% was estimated at 3.31 kha (8.5% of land area), while natural 

forests predominated over non-natural tree cover. Fire activity remained within normal 

historical ranges, with six high-confidence VIIRS alerts recorded between April 2024 and April 

2025. Notably, fire-induced tree cover loss totaled 2 ha from 2001 to 2023, with 2023 marking 

the highest annual loss from fire at 2 ha—7.1% of that year's total. Consequently, 92.9% of the 

tree cover loss in 2023 (i.e., 36.2 ha out of 39 ha) was not caused by fire outbreak but rather by 

deforestation. Despite fire disturbances, no deforestation alerts were recorded between April 8 

and April 15, 2025, and the total number of fire alerts from April 2021 to April 2025 stood at 

173. 

These afore-stated records indicate that deforestation is rife in Awka Metropolis, and it has 

adverse impacts on the area’s ecological stance alongside the holistic wellbeing of its 

population. This equally showcases the urgency of reforestation and the adoption of 

ecologically sound practices across the milieu. 

EXPLORING AFRICAN ECO-THEOLOGY 

African eco-theology is an evolving theological discourse that responds to environmental 

degradation by engaging African cultural, philosophical, and religious worldviews within 

Christian theological reflections. Emerging partly in reaction to Lynn White Jr.’s critique that 

Christian theology has promoted ecological destruction as Gottlieb (2004) explicates; African 

eco-theology seeks both to localize and contribute to global ecological conversations. While 

acknowledging the historical and ongoing impact of Western industrialization on Africa's 

ecological and economic landscapes, scholars like Conradie (2010) argues that such 

developments have severely harmed the environment and deepened poverty in vulnerable 

communities. However, recognizing that Africans have also become complicit in this crisis, 

African eco-theologians are shifting from blame-shifting to theologically investigating the 



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causes of and solutions to environmental degradation within African contexts as Mukaria 

(2021) suggests. Distinctively, African eco-theology integrates indigenous eco-religious 

values, rooted in the inseparability of spiritual and material realities, to promote creation care, 

environmental justice, and stewardship. Blasu (2020) intimates that this culturally grounded 

approach reject purely technocratic solutions and instead explores the African primal 

worldview of interconnectedness, which emphasizes harmony between human and non-human 

creation. Through incorporating such indigenous perspectives into Christian theological 

discourse, African eco-theologians aim to cultivate a renewed, contextually relevant, and 

theologically sound human-earth relationship. 

Kanu (2021) articulates that African eco-theology is a contextual theological response to the 

ecological crisis, rooted in the African cultural and religious worldview, and distinct from 

Black theology which primarily addresses historical oppression in the American and South 

African contexts. Apposite to Kanu’s insights, African eco-theology emerges as a dimension 

of liberation theology that emphasizes social responsibility toward environmental preservation, 

recognizing the human person as created in the image of God and situated within a community 

of beings deserving of dignity and care. Nwaigbo (cited by Kanu) defines it as a reflective 

theology aimed at safeguarding the earth and universe from further degradation. Unlike 

universal or technocratic approaches that may overlook cultural complexities, African eco-

theology insists on locally grounded, culturally relevant solutions, as advocated by Pope 

Francis (cited by Kanu), who underscores the inadequacy of uniform global interventions and 

calls for dynamic, participatory strategies that align with the symbols, customs, and 

spiritualities of specific peoples. In this light, African eco-theology engages the 

interconnectedness of African religion, culture, and nature, drawing from Africa’s symbolic 

and spiritual heritage to confront environmental challenges with authenticity and depth. 

In line with the aforementioned articulations and in view of Afunugo’s (2024) study, African 

eco-theology is a contextual theological enterprise that interrogates the interrelationship 

between African indigenous ecological consciousness and the sacred. It articulates a distinctive 

spiritual anthropology that perceives the environment not as an inert resource but as a living 

continuum of divine immanence. It transcends imported cosmological binaries by recovering 

the African cosmotheandric vision, where nature, humanity, and the divine are co-constitutive 

and dynamically intertwined. Unlike conventional eco-theologies, which often derive from 

Western philosophical dualisms, African eco-theology arises from ancestral epistemologies in 

which ecological preservation is sacralized through ritual, myth, and communal ethics. It resists 

exploitative modernity and theological abstractions by calling for praxis of ecological 

reparation rooted in the spiritual dignity of land and life. 

DEFORESTATION IN AWKA METROPOLIS AS A VIOLATION OF AFRICAN 

ECO-THEOLOGY AND HUMAN WELLBEING 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis constitutes a significant violation of African eco-theology, 

which emphasizes the sacred relationship between humanity and nature, embedded in the belief 

that environmental stewardship is integral to human wellbeing. The reduction of trees, essential 

for producing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide, has dire consequences on human health. 

A diminished presence of trees disrupts the natural exchange of gases, contributing to 

respiratory problems such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and 

other lung-related illnesses. The resultant lack of fresh air exacerbates the suffocating urban 

environment, where increased heat, often referred to as the urban heat island effect, intensifies 

the oppressive weather. E. Okoye and C. Ezeokeke (personal communication, April 18, 2025), 

this elevated temperature can lead to heat-related illnesses, including heat exhaustion and heat 



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stroke, which cause dehydration, fatigue, confusion, and in extreme cases, organ failure. The 

absence of trees not only deepens the environmental crisis but also directly compromises public 

health, particularly among vulnerable populations, making the effects of deforestation more 

than just an ecological concern, but a pressing human health issue. 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis has significantly disrupted the ecological balance, leading 

to a cascade of environmental disasters. The removal of vegetation, particularly trees, 

exacerbates soil erosion by reducing the natural barriers that prevent water runoff. This 

degradation of the land not only increases the frequency and intensity of erosion but also 

heightens the vulnerability of the region to flooding, as the soil's capacity to absorb water is 

diminished. This is witnessed at Ifite Awka and Umuike areas amongst others. Moreover, 

deforestation contributes to the loss of biodiversity, weakening the resilience of local 

ecosystems to climatic shifts. The resultant increase in temperature and altered rainfall patterns 

further compound the challenges, creating a feedback loop of escalating environmental crises. 

As such, the unchecked destruction of forests in Awka triggers a chain reaction of ecological 

catastrophes, including the displacement of local species, deterioration of water quality, and 

the amplification of climate-related hazards such as droughts and landslides. In this regard, I. 

Ibegbu and G. Ikejiobi (personal communication, April 18, 2025), observe that water obtained 

from wells and boreholes within Awka Hub is mostly unfit for drinking. 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis not only depletes the natural landscape, undermining the 

aesthetic beauty that is vital for cultural and creative expression, but it also exacerbates the 

absence of designated spaces for relaxation and inspiration, such as natural parks and 

recreational areas. There is no single natural park or relative place within Awka Metropolis 

that offers a sanctuary for rejuvenation or a setting that activates the flow of ideas and talent. 

These spaces are crucial for both mental relaxation and the nurturing of creative potential, yet 

their lack stifles innovation and personal development. This environmental degradation 

constitutes a violation of African eco-theology, which emphasizes the intrinsic connection 

between humanity and the natural world, advocating for the stewardship of creation as essential 

to human flourishing. Moreover, the absence of such spaces contributes to the erosion of human 

wellbeing, as access to nature is integral to holistic health, cognitive function, and the 

preservation of cultural practices that promote communal and individual growth. 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis represents a growing environmental crisis that conflicts with 

the principles of African eco-theology and human well-being. African eco-theology 

emphasizes the sacredness of the earth, viewing nature as a divine gift and an extension of the 

Creator’s presence. In traditional Igbo cosmology, which informs the theological outlook of 

many inhabitants of Awka, forests are not merely physical spaces but spiritual entities. Sacred 

groves, ancestral trees, and riverbanks serve as places of communion with the divine and the 

ancestors. Therefore, the reckless clearing of forests for urban expansion and commercial 

activities is a direct affront to this theological worldview. It is a desecration of what is held as 

sacred and spiritually significant. This destruction also disrupts the interconnectedness between 

the land, the divine, and the people, reflecting a violation not just of sacred beliefs but of the 

holistic relationship that sustains both spiritual and physical well-being. 

In addition to theological concerns, deforestation severely undermines human well-being in 

Awka. The cutting down of trees contributes to a rise in temperatures, increased soil erosion, 

and the loss of biodiversity. Residents face health risks due to increased dust, poor air quality, 

and heat stress, especially during the dry season. In a city already grappling with infrastructural 

challenges, the absence of trees worsens living conditions and places strain on healthcare 



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86 
 

systems. The ecological disruption also threatens the livelihood of local farmers who depend 

on a balanced climate and fertile soil. As these natural supports erode, food insecurity and 

poverty become more pronounced. Thus, the ecological destruction directly impacts the 

physical and economic health of the population, demonstrating how the violation of eco-

theological principles simultaneously harms human well-being. 

Furthermore, African eco-theology promotes a harmonious relationship between humans and 

the environment, grounded in the ethics of community, reciprocity, and stewardship. In this 

theology, every human action upon the environment carries moral responsibility. Deforestation 

in Awka betrays this responsibility by prioritizing economic gain over communal welfare and 

ecological balance. It reflects a departure from traditional values where environmental 

degradation is considered an act of moral negligence. The absence of community consultation 

in most deforestation activities also highlights a disconnection from indigenous governance 

structures that once ensured sustainable land use. This disconnect not only violates eco-

theological principles but also undermines the community's social cohesion, as the environment 

is integral to both communal identity and individual well-being. 

The destruction of trees in Awka also disrupts cultural identity and social cohesion. In many 

parts of Igboland, including Awka, trees serve as cultural symbols, boundary markers, and 

meeting points. Their removal erases historical memory and weakens the communal narratives 

tied to land and nature. Moreover, the loss of green spaces affects mental health, especially 

among children and the elderly who rely on such environments for recreation and solace. 

Human well-being, therefore, is not only affected in physical terms but also in psychological 

and cultural dimensions. The diminishing of these natural spaces directly contravenes the 

African eco-theological understanding of nature as a means of nurturing mental and spiritual 

health within the community. 

Deforestation in Awka Metropolis violates both the tenets of African eco-theology and human 

well-being by desecrating sacred ecological spaces and undermining the spiritual principles of 

stewardship and reverence for nature. It also threatens human well-being by disrupting the 

ecological balance necessary for health, livelihood, and social harmony. Addressing this crisis 

requires a return to indigenous ecological ethics and a commitment to sustainable urban 

planning that respects both theological values and the right to a healthy environment. The 

restoration of the land is therefore not only an environmental necessity but also a spiritual and 

human imperative. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



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CONCLUSION  

This research has illuminated the complex relationship between ecological degradation and 

spiritual dislocation within the context of African eco-theology. Deforestation in Awka 

Metropolis represents more than an environmental crisis; it disrupts the sacred balance that 

sustains both nature and human life. African eco-theological perspectives regard the 

environment as a living entity with intrinsic spiritual value, and any harm to it directly 

undermines human well-being. The findings reflect the need for ethical ecological practices 

rooted in African spiritual traditions, which place environmental stewardship at the heart of 

community life. 

Although existing literature on Igbo ecological thought is abundant, the absence of updated 

environmental records and the reluctance of certain government agencies and community 

leaders to release relevant ecological data significantly affected the depth of analysis. These 

practical challenges limited the development of a more thorough and balanced correlation 

between eco-theological values and actual deforestation trends across various parts of the 

metropolis. 

Future studies may consider more comprehensive regional comparisons across urban centers 

in Nigeria and sub-Saharan Africa, examining how similar patterns of deforestation influence 

both ecological stability and theological worldviews. Interdisciplinary collaboration among 

theology, environmental studies, and cultural anthropology could offer a richer platform for 

contextual solutions. Engaging local communities, traditional leaders, and faith-based actors in 

future research may also yield practical pathways for integrating ecological restoration with 

cultural and spiritual renewal. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

In addressing the alarming rate of deforestation in Awka Metropolis, this paper makes the 

following recommendations: 

1. A theological reorientation grounded in African eco-theology is exigent in forming the 

Theological base of all religious institutions and individuals in Awka Metropolis and Igbo 

communities at large. The local church and faith-based institutions should actively incorporate 

ecological consciousness into their liturgies, catechesis, and sermons, emphasizing the spiritual 

interconnectedness between humanity and nature as preserved in African Traditional 

cosmologies. This theological shift should not only reaffirm the sacredness of the earth but also 

challenge exploitative practices that sever the symbiotic relationship between people and their 

environment. Such spiritual engagement can create moral pressure on legislatures and 

community leaders to adopt ecologically sustainable approaches in urban planning. 

2. Additionally, government agencies and local authorities must prioritize the 

development and enforcement of environmental policies that align with both scientific and 

cultural imperatives. Urban development projects should undergo rigorous environmental 

impact assessments that integrate Igbo indigenous ecological knowledge as reflected in the 

Gaia Theory in Igbo Perspective. Collaboration between environmental scientists, theologians, 

and community elders can yield context-specific strategies for afforestation and the 

preservation of biodiversity.  



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88 
 

3. Public awareness campaigns anchored in both civic education and religious teachings 

should be launched to sensitize Awka residents on the long-term consequences of deforestation, 

including climate change, erosion, and public health crises. 

4. Furthermore, educational institutions in Awka should embed environmental ethics and 

African eco-theological principles into their curricula across all levels. Nurturing ecological 

literacy among the youth ensures the emergence of a new generation of environmentally 

responsible citizens. Community-driven initiatives, such as urban green spaces, tree planting 

exercises, and sacred forest conservation, deserve support through grants and incentives. These 

grassroots actions can serve as practical expressions of theological convictions, thereby 

reinforcing the moral imperative to protect creation as an extension of safeguarding human 

wellbeing. 

5. Estate managers in Awka Metropolis should enforce policies that prohibit the 

indiscriminate felling of trees during the construction of corporate, public, and private 

buildings. This practice, successfully implemented in cities like London, Vancouver, and 

Singapore, ensures adequate fresh air circulation and enhances natural aesthetic appeal. 

Integrating tree preservation into urban development plans will promote environmental health 

and align Awka Metropolis with global standards of sustainable real estate management. 

 

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